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A Ph.D. degree usually is required for independent research, but a master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research or product development; a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs.
Doctoral degree holders face considerable competition for independent research positions, particularly in universities; holders of bachelor’s or master’s degrees in biological science can expect better opportunities in nonresearch positions.
The U.S. Department of Labor predicts biotechnological research and development will continue to drive employment growth.
Many other occupations deal with living organisms and require a level of training similar to that of biological scientists. These include medical scientists, agricultural and food scientists, and conservation scientists and foresters, as well as health occupations such as physicians and surgeons, dentists, and veterinarians.
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Median annual earnings of biochemists and biophysicists were $60,390 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,110 and $82,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,930, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $102,930. Median annual earnings of microbiologists were $51,020 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,100 and $67,420. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,250, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $87,060. Median annual earnings of zoologists and wildlife biologists were $47,740 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,100 and $58,040. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $71,270. Median annual earnings of biochemists and biophysicists employed in scientific research and development services were $64,390 in 2002.
According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, beginning salary offers in 2003 averaged $29,456 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological and life sciences; $33,600 for master’s degree recipients; and $42,244 for doctoral degree recipients.
In the Federal Government in 2003, general biological scientists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions earned an average salary of $66,262; microbiologists, $73,513; ecologists, $65,207; physiologists, $85,181; geneticists, $78,652; zoologists, $90,178; and botanists, $55,727.
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Biological scientists held about 75,000 jobs in 2002. Almost half of all biological scientists were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Federal biological scientists worked mainly for the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Interior, and Defense, and for the National Institutes of Health. Most of the rest worked in scientific research and testing laboratories, the pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing industry, or hospitals.
In addition, many biological scientists held biology faculty positions in colleges and universities.
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Biological scientists usually work regular hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Those who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow strict safety procedures to avoid contamination. Many biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists take field trips that involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Biological scientists in the field may work in warm or cold climates, in all kinds of weather. In their research, they may dig, chip with a hammer, scoop with a net, and carry equipment in a backpack. They also may climb, stand, kneel, or dive.
The work of a marine biologist varies dramatically, depending on the type of work involved. Some work in a laboratory, while others work on research ships. Marine biologists who work underwater must practice safe diving while working around sharp coral reefs and hazardous marine life. Although some marine biologists obtain their specimens from the sea, many still spend a good deal of their time in laboratories and offices, conducting tests, running experiments, recording results, and compiling data.
Some biological scientists depend on grant money to support their research. They may be under pressure to meet deadlines and to conform to rigid grant-writing specifications when preparing proposals to seek new or extended funding.
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Aquatic biologists study micro-organisms, plants, and animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt water organisms, and limnologists study fresh water organisms. Much of the work of marine biology centers on molecular biology, the study of the biochemical processes that take place inside living cells. Marine biologists sometimes are mistakenly called oceanographers, but oceanography is the study of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor.
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Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. Biochemists and molecular biologists do most of their work in the field of biotechnology, which involves understanding the complex chemistry of life.
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Botanists study plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life, including algae, fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, the interaction of plants with other organisms and the environment, and the geological record of plants.
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Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Most microbiologists specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, or industrial microbiology; virology (the study of viruses); or immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many microbiologists use biotechnology to advance knowledge of cell reproduction and human disease.
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Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists often specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism.
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Biophysicistsstudy is the application of principles of physics, such as electrical and mechanical energy and related phenomena, to living cells and organisms.
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Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and wildlife—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings, while others dissect dead animals in order to study their structure. They also may collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of current and potential use of land and water areas. Zoologists usually are identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish).
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Ecologists study the relationships among organisms and between organisms and their environments, and the effects of influences such as population size, pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude. Utilizing knowledge of various scientific disciplines, they may collect, study, and report data on the quality of air, food, soil, and water.
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