Calendar

A system of marking days of the year, usually devised in a way to give each date a fixed place in the cycle of seasons.

Calorie Unit used in measuring the energy of heat or chemical energy. A "small" calorie is the heat needed to warm up one gram of water by 1 degree centigrade and equals about 4.18 joule. A "kilocalorie" or "big calorie" equals 1000 calories and is the unit usually used in describing the energy content of food.

Cartesian coordinates A system of uniquely marking the position of a point on a plane [or in 3-dimensional space] -- by 2 [3] numbers (its "cartesian coordinates") giving its distances from 2 [3] mutually perpendicular lines ("cartesian axes"). The distances and the axes to which they are parallel are usually marked (x,y) in a plane and (x,y,z) in space; the "origin" is the point at which the axes intersect.

Celestial coordinates see "right ascension and declination."

Celestial pole One of the two points in the sky around which the celestial sphere seems to rotate.

Celestial sphere An immense sphere surrounding Earth, to which the fixed stars seen at night appear to be attached. Although strictly speaking such a sphere does not exist, it is often used as a convenient tool for mapping the position of stars and other heavenly bodies. In a similar way, although it is clear that the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere is really due to the Earth rotating around its axis, that rotation is often used for convenient description of apparent motions such as the rising and setting of stars.

Center of gravity (CG), also known (more precisely) as center of mass. In a distributed mass, an appropriately defined "average location" of its parts. If the mass is a rigid (=undeforming) body subject to the earth's gravity, then if it is supported at the CG, it will stay balanced and not tilt to any side. In a system subject only to internal forces, the center of gravity always stays in the same spot; hence the Earth-Moon system rotates around its mutual center of gravity (not around the Earth's center), and a rocket flies forwards when it ejects a high-speed stream of gas backwards.

Centrifugal force A force which must be included in the calculation of equilibria between forces in a rotating frame of reference (e.g. rotating carrousel, rotating space station, rotating Earth). In the rotating frame, the forces on a body of mass m are in equilibrium (as evidenced by the body staying at the same place) only if all forces acting on it, plus a "centrifugal force" mv2/R directed away from the center of rotation, add up to zero. See Coriolis force.

Centripetal acceleration The acceleration associated with motion around a circle, directed to the center of the circle.

Centripetal force The force making a motion is a circle possible, always directed to the center of the circle. To make a (small) object of mass m move with velocity v around a circle of radius R, a centripetal force of magnitude mv2/R must be applied.

Chromosphere a reddish layer in the Sun´s atmosphere, the transition between the photosphere and the corona

CME see coronal mass ejection.

Chronometer An accurate clock used to derive the local longitude from the position of the Sun in the sky.

Circulation (atmospheric, also known as "global circulation"). Large scale flows of air in the atmosphere, distributing to higher latitudes (and ultimately returning it to space via radiation) the heat deposited by sunlight near the equator (ultimately returning it to space via radiation).

Climate The average pattern of weather variation at a certain location, throughout the year.

Color a quality of light, depending on its wavelength. Spectral color of an emission of light is its place in the rainbow spectrum. Perceived color (or visual color) is the quality of light emission as conveyed by the human eye, combining the impressions of 3 types of light-sensitive cells which the eye contains. Perceived color can be the response to certain combinations of spectral colors, e.g. brown responds to green and red (or blue, yellow and red).

Comet a body of dust, frozen water and gases falling sunward from the outer regions of the solar system. Comets become visible when they approach the Sun, as sunlight evaporates their upper layers and creates long tails of dust and ions. Comets are believed to be remnants of the formation of the solar system; some of them (like Halley's comet) are diverted by the attraction of planets into orbits of relatively short periods around the Sun.

Component of vector When a vector is resolved into a sum of vectors in specified directions, each of those vector is the component of the given vector in the specified direction.

Conic Sections The family of curves generated by planes intersecting with a cone. Several cases are distinguished, depending on the angle between the plane and the axis of the cone. Precise definitions exist for each, but in general terms, when the plane is: -Perpendicular to the axis, the curve is a circle. -Moderately inclined to the axis, the curve is an ellipse. -Parallel to one of the straight lines which generate the cone, the curve is a parabola. -Even more steeply inclined, the curve is a hyperbola.

Conservation of Energy A fundamental law of physics (and chemistry): the total sum of energy in a "closed system"--one which does not interact with others around it--stays unchanged as time advances.

Conservation of momentum A fundamental law of motion, equivalent to Newton's laws: in a system of bodies (=objects), the (vector) sum of all momenta cannot change due to any internal interactions.

Constellation A named grouping of fixed stars, e.g. Orion or the Big Dipper.

Convection A circulating flow in a fluid, carrying heat away from its source. Convection in the atmosphere carries heat from the sun-warmed ground to higher layers, where it is radiated away into space; the lower levels do not radiate efficiently because of the greenhouse effect. Atmospheric convection is the engine that drives the Earth's weather. Convection is also believed to occur in a certain depth range below the Sun's surface, helping carry away heat from the Sun's core region.

Copernican System A theory of planetary motions, proposed by Copernicus, according to which all planets move in circular orbits around the Sun, the ones closer to the Sun moving faster, with the Earth itself a planet orbiting between Venus and Mars.

Coriolis force A force which must be included in the calculation of motion in a rotating frame of reference, if the body moves in such a way that its rotation velocity changes. In general, it tends to preserve that part of its velocity. The Coriolis force is responsible for the swirling of hurricanes and large weather systems--for air flowing into a region of low pressure, counterclockwise north of the equator, clockwise south of the equator (reverse directions for air flowing out of a high pressure region). See centrifugal force.

Corona the outermost layer of the Sun´s atmosphere, visible to the eye during a total solar eclipse; it can also be observed through special filters and best of all, by X-ray cameras aboard satellites. The corona is very hot, up to 1-1.5 million degrees centigrade, and is the source of the solar wind

Coronal hole an area in the Sun's corona that appears dark when viewed in the far UV or in the long-wavelength end of the x-ray range. Coronal holes seem associated with sources of fast solar wind, probably because their field lines do not curve back to the Sun. Over most of the Sun their shapes are changeable and irregular, but the Sun's polar regions seem to contain "permanent" coronal holes.

Coronal mass ejection (CME) a huge cloud of hot plasma, occasionally expelled from the Sun. It may accelerate ions and electrons and may travel through interplanetary space as far as the Earth´s orbit and beyond it, often preceded by a shock front. When the shock reaches Earth, a magnetic storm may result.

Crab nebula a cloud-like nebula observed in the Crab constellation, the remnant of a supernova explosion observed in China in 1054. It contains a very rapidly rotating (and hence, young) pulsar, which is probably the remnant of the supernova. The emissions of radio waves and light from this nebula suggest the presence of high energy particles.

Crater (impact crater). A generally round depression created by the impact of a large compact mass on a planet or moon. Impact craters mark the Moon, also Mercury and Mars, and many satellites in the solar system. Notable ones on Earth include Meteor Crater in Arizona and Manicougan lake in Canada.

Cross staff A cross-shaped device to measure the elevation of the Sun or a star above the horizon, or the angle between the directions of two heavenly objects. The staff is aimed halfway between the objects, then the cross-piece is slid until aiming points at its end cover the two objects. Widely used for navigation at sea in the 15-17th century, later displaced by the more convenient sextant.